About Sudan
History
Geography
Government
Food
Art
The Land and Location
Before presenting the History and Geography of this country, here is a brief definition of the name Sudan.
Ancient Arab historians gave the name Sudan to the vast lands beyond the Great African Desert. But while ancient Sudan, which meant the land of the black people, embodied a broad geographical and human spectrum, te boundaries came to existence only at the beginning of this century.
Sudan is the largest country in Africa. Stretching from Egypt in the north to Uganda in the south and sharing borders with nine countries. This vast territory measures about 1,000,000 sq. miles, which constitutes 8.3 % of the land area of Africa. It is geographically situated almost at the centre of the continent, between longitudes 22 and 38 East and latitudes 4 and 22 North. Sudan shares borders with nine African countries of which two are Afro-Arab, lying in the North of Sudan, they are Egypt (1,200 km), and Libya (380 km). In the East, there are Ethiopia, Eritrea and the Red Sea with a total border of (6,630 km). While Kenya (200 km), Uganda (400 km) and Zaire (500 km) lie in the South. And the Central African Republic (900 km) and Chad (1, 100 km) are in the West. As such, it naturally became a zone of interaction between the Hamitic Arabs and the Negro Africans. This blending resulted in Sudan's many different ethnic groups and unique cultures.
Ancient History
Finds of Palaeolithic tools attest the existence of Old Stone Age man in Sudan. The first known settlements date probably between 5000-4000 BC. Their occupants had no knowledge of agriculture. Ancient Egyptian records provide the only source of information about early historical events and are confined to Northern Sudan (Ancient Kush). The earliest of these recorded events were the raids by Egyptians from the Old Kingdom in about 2800 BC.
Two hundred years later, the Egyptians established trade with the Dongola area and an expedition may have gone as far as Darfur. During this period, the Sudan was inhabited by groups of people engaged in agricultural and pastoral pursuits, ignorant of the arts of writing and metallurgy. Those of them who lived in the North are known as the "A" group: their most important settlement yet found is located at Faras, near Wadi Halfa. People of a sculpture are known to have lived in the area of Khartoum. During the Middle Kingdom of Egypt, beginning in about 2,000 BC, the Egyptians colonised the Sudan as far as the Fourth Cataract and established a governor at Kerma, whose large fortified residence can still be seen today. A string of forts was built along the Nile to protect the communication routes to Egypt. This occupation lasted for 300 years, at the end of which some disaster occurred of which we have no details, but which caused the destruction of the forts by fire and the disappearance of the Egyptian administration. The invasion of Egypt by the Hyksos, an Asiatic people, in about 1700B.C., had probably a strong relation to this collapse.
After the expulsion of the Hyksos in 1580 BC, the Egyptians soon reasserted their domination of Sudan during the reign of Ahmas 1, the founder of the 18th dynasty of pharaohs. With the decline of the Egyptian Empire at the end of the second millennium, the Egyptians again disappeared from the Sudanese history. A period of over three hundred years followed, of which little is known. Kingdoms of Napata and Merawi.
In 900BC, a Sudanese kingdom, with a strong Egyptian cultural and religious influence, arose at Napata, near modern Meroe. And about 760 B.C., under the kings Kashata and Piankhi, they conquered Egypt, and together with their successors of whom Tirhaqo was the most famous, constituted the 25th dynasty of the rulers of Egypt. About the year 660B.C, the Assyrians under their king Ashurbanipal finally drove the Sudanese rulers out of Egypt. Their descendants, however continued to live in Sudan for another thousand years. The capital was at Napata until about 550 BC, when it was moved to Meroe, north of modern Shendi. Napata, however, remained the religious centre until about 300 BC and the kings and queens of Meroe continued to be buried there during this period. The town retained considerable importance until, in 23 BC, it was captured and sacked by the Romans. The kingdom of Meroe reached the height of its prosperity at the beginning of the Christian era and thereafter gradually declined. Little is known of this period, as the language in which the Meroitic people wrote is not yet fully understood. The kingdom finally succumbed either to tribes from further south, or to the king of Axurn (Ethiopia) in about 300 BC. The invasion of the Axurnites did not lead to permanent occupation and for the next two hundred years the Northern Sudan was ruled by a number of independent kinglets. The history of this period is obscure, as these rulers were illiterate and probably largely nomadic.
Christianity in Sudan
In 542-543 AD, during the reign of Justinian, the country was rapidly Christianized. To begin with, it adhered to the Greek (Melkite) church, but about 700 AD, the monophysites (Coptic Church) became dominant. Politically, the country was divided into two kingdoms: the Northern Kingdom of Muqarra, which had its capital at Old Dongola and the southern kingdom of Alwa with its capital at Soba, south of Khartoum. Many churches were built along the Nile, but to what extent the more remote regions were affected remains yet to be known.
Islam in Sudan
The Muslim conquest of Egypt was followed by further attempts to extend their rule by attacking Dongola several times, but these attempts were to no avail. A treaty signed in 652 AD, established a period of uneasy peace which lasted for six years, but was interrupted by sporadic conflicts in the northernmost part of Sudan.
Around the year 1260, the policy of the Turkish Mamluke rulers of Egypt towards the Sudan changed, and numerous raids during the next fifty years led to anarchy in the Northern Kingdom, the sack of Old Dongola and the overthrow of the Maqarran dynasty in about 1340. This was followed by rapid immigration from Egypt, the Islamisation of the Sudan as far south as Shendi and the partitioning of land among tribal leaders.
The southern kingdom of Aiwa survived longer, although Arab tribes appear to have moved into the country in the middle of the 15th century. History places the final overthrow of the kingdom in 1504, as a result of an alliance between immigrant Arabs from the north and a people of obscure; probably southern origin called the Funj.
The Funj Kingdom
The Funj and their allies established a Muslim kingdom that fasted for three hundred years. The influence of these "Black Sultans", with their capital at Sennai, extended at the height of their power, from the Third Cataract in the north to Fazogli in the south. They even ruled Kordofan for a few years in the second half of the 18th century. A strong Christian kingdom in Abyssinia prevented the expansion to the east.
The Sultanate was really little more than a fragile feudal confederation, the land being parceled out among kinglets who enjoyed considerable independence. Eventually the failure to build up a centralised administration, and the weakness of the royal house itself brought about the disintegration of the kingdom, and the end of the 18th century saw one after the other of the chieftains throwing off their allegiance to Sennar. By 1820, the authority of the Funj scarcely extended north of Khartoum.
Turko-Egyptian Rule
In 1820, Muhammad Ali, the Turkish Pasha of Egypt, sent two military expeditions south and westward into Sudan, capturing Sennar and El Obeid in the following year. Thus began the period of Turko-Egyptian rule in Sudan, which lasted till 1885. A new capital was established at Khartoum and the country was divided into provinces and districts, with Turks or Egyptians in charge. It appears that Muhammad Ali invaded Sudan mainly in the hope of obtaining gold and black men to enlist in his army, which he intended to use in his schemes against his own master, the Ottoman Sultan. The new government remained little more than a tax collecting body, and a prosperous slave trade was ensued between the Sudan and Egypt. About 1850, the first Christian missionaries arrived in southern Sudan. The reign of the Khedive of Egypt, Ismail (1863-79) saw a number of changes. He had plans for the creation of a large empire south of Egypt. To realise this end, he c onquered Darfur in 1874 with the active help of AI Zubeir Pasha, and by 1876, had established outposts along the Nile as far as the Great Lakes. Communications were improved by connecting Darfur and Egypt via Khartoum with a telegraph line. He employed European explorers and administrators like Sir samuel Baker and Colonel Gordon. Under Gordon's administration, a concerted attempt to abolish the slave trade was made, which met with some success. Little was done, however, to develop the resources of the country. Generally speaking, the TurkoEgyptian government of the Sudan was doomed to failure. The appointed officials lacked public spirit, were unpopular among the people and were considered as a burden for the country.
The Mahdiya
In 1881, a religious leader, Mohamed Ahmed El Mahdi, led a revolt against the government. His rebellion, which was a movement for both religious and political reform, was widely successful. It triumphed with the capture of Khartoum, where General Gordon, who was the last Turkish governor, was killed in 1885.
On the advice of the British, who occupied Egypt since 1882, the Turko-Egyptian government was withdrawn. Although the Mahdi died in the same year, the Sudan under his successor, the Khalifa Abd Allah remained independent until 1898.
The British-Egyptian rule (The Condominium)
Various reasons, including the British fear of the establishment of French influence over the Upper Nile area, led to the reconquest of the Sudan. An Anglo-Egyptian force led by General Kitchener, invaded Sudan between 1896 and 1898, and the invasion culminated in the battle of Omdurman. The Khalifa escaped, but died in battle later in 1899. The establishment of a French outpost in Fashoda caused grave international tension. But it was eventually withdrawn because of the heavy British pressure. The rule of the Mahdi was accompanied by considerable dislocation of Sudanese economic and tribal life; hence, a new administration had to be established. The old Turko-Egyptian system of provinces and districts was reintroduced, but with British officers in all key administrative posts. Kitchener was appointed the first Governor-General. The structure for the form of governing Sudan was defined in the 1899 Condominium Agreement between Britain and Egypt. This agreement enforced the separation of the administration of Sudan from that of Egypt and of putting the former under joint Anglo-Egyptian control, with the British influence predominant. National rule: The political development of the country during the Condominium underwent three phases:
1898-1938: During this period, civilians gradually substituted the military officers in the administration. After the First World War, Sudanese tribal leaders were encouraged to take over subordinate local administration.
1938-1951: With the foundation of the Graduates General Congress at the beginning of this period, there appeared an indigenous political movement among educated Sudanese. The "Sudanization" of the control government was initiated; by 1944, Sudanese were sitting on the Province Councils and an Advisory Council for Northern Sudan with Sudanese members was founded. At about this time, the Graduates Congress split into two parties, one favouring union with Egypt and the other demanding complete independence for the Sudan. In 1948, a party-elected Legislative Assembly with limited powers was set up.
1951-1953: Negotiations concerning the future of Sudan were at first inconclusive, but finally in February 1953, the British and the Egyptian Governments signed an agreement. This provided that a three-year period of self-government under international supervision was to begin immediately, to foster the decision of the Sudanese people on the future of their country. Elections of the self-government parliament took place in November and December 1953.
Independence
The newly elected government went ahead with the process of Sudanization of the state's organs and bodies, with the help and supervision of an international committee. In November 1955, it declared the intentions of the Sudanese people to exercise their right of independence. This was duly granted and on the 1st of January 1956, Sudan was formerly declared independent. in a special ceremony held at the People's Palace, the British and Egyptian flags were brought down and the new Sudanese flag, composed of green, blue and yellow stripes, was hoisted high in the air.
Post-Independence in Sudan
After obtaining its independence, Sudan under went several systems of national governments ranging between military and civil rule. The first national government was headed by Ismail El Azhari, followed by another under the leadership of Abdaila Khalil. This government stayed in power till 1958 when the armed forces staged a coup d'etat and a military government chaired by General Aboud ruled up to 1964. A popular uprising led to the demise of the military regime and after holding elections under a care taking government, a nationally, civilian elected government took the reigns of power followed by two other governments till 1969. In May 1969, the armed forces moved again and the May regime ruled for sixteen years. In 1985, another uprising against the regime led to a caretaker government that held general elections and subsequently an elected government led by Sadig El Mahdi governed till June 1989. Then, the National Salvation Revolution was declared.The sudan then entered into anew phase of socio-economic development as the government was able to tap some of the country's resources and for the first time the sudan became a petrol producer as the commercialisation of petrol started only in 1999.A peace agreement was as well concluded with the SPLM/ SPLA thus putting the Sudan on the threshold of anew phase of peace and prosperity.The essence and spirit of the agreement is to b applied to all other parts of the country and thereby constitute abasis for solving the country's other problems particularly the problem of Darfur.
Environment
Sudan is mainly composed of extensive plains or ironstone soils in the South, clay in the central regions and sand in the North and West. There are few mountainous areas of which the principal ones are the Imatong in the South, Jebel Marra in the West, and the Red Sea Hilis'lin the East.
The major vegetation zones in Sudan are desert, semi-desert, woodland savanna : the on clay and woodland savanna on sand, woodland derived recently from the rainforest, the flood region and montane vegetation. The arid and semi-arid areas constitute more than 60% of the area of the country. The desert covers about 700,000 square kilometres, or more than one quarter of the country. The total area of the semi-desert vegetation covers about 478,000 square kilometres. The total area of low rainfall savanna on clay covers about 122,000 square kilometres.
The wide variety of vegetation types in Sudan is reflected in its fauna. Out of the 13 mammalian orders in Africa, 12 can be found in Sudan. 1,931 species of birds were recorded in Sudan. Equally diversified is the fish fauna, the most significant of which are that of the Nile. The Nile is geologically old and has a distinctive "Nilotic" fauna, which includes relatively few species (24 families and 106 species). Similarly, the insect fauna of Sudan is very diversified; it is estimated that there are at least 100 species of insect pests in Sudan.
Topography
The vast land of Sudan that extends from latitudes 4 to 22 North, ranging from desert to semi-desert, savanna, subtropics, tropical forests and coastal environments. Roughly, it can be divided into three main regions:
The desert belt: The northern 30% of the country is desert or semi-desert, with rocks at or near the surface covered by thin poor soil.
The semi-desert belt: South of the desert belt and typical of the western part of the country, this is an area of undulating sand dunes dotted with vegetation. Isolated highlands, such as the Marra Mountain and the Nuba Mountains are also part of this terrain.
The clay plain: This covers the greater part of country, including the whole of southern, central and eastern part of the country.
Mountains: Five distinct mountain ranges and plateaus characterize the relief of the landmass of Sudan. Among these are the mountain ranges of the (Red Sea Hills) in the northeast and the mountain forest plateau of (Imatong) in the south. (Mountain Marra) is a sprawling highland of over 10,000 feet above sea level in the southwest and west of Sudan. (AI Meidob) cluster of mountains stands in the furthest north of western state of Darfur. Finally, there are (Nuba Mountains) which are located in the rich rainy savanna belt of Southern Kordofan.
Climate
As Sudan lies wholly within the tropics, it has a tropical climate. The greater part of the country falls under the influence of the trade winds; hence, it has generally hot, rainy summers and warm, dry winters. Because of its huge area, there is a great variation in rain, where it scarcely rains in the north; the average rainfall is 25 mm. Whereas in the south it Gabal Marra reaches up to 1500mm.
The amount of rainfall decreases from about 1500 mm. in the South to less than 25 mm. in the Northern extremity. The duration of the rainy season and rainfall and its reliability increases from North to South. Rainfall exhibits wide range of variability from 20% in the South to 100% in the North.
The main rainy season is July to September but occasional showers fall in May- June particularly in the higher rainfall areas in the South. The Red Sea Hills receive Monsoon rains during the months of October and November.
There is little rain in the far north and central regions, occurring mostly in July and August. Between April and October, severe sandstorms, or "Haboubs", blow frequently in the northern part of the country. On the other hand, in the south, the rainy season is much heavier and lasts from May through October.
March through June are characterized by high temperatures, reaching up to 42 degrees Centigrade at daytime and 27 degrees Centigrade during the night. July through October are mild and benign, with the commencement of the rainy season. November through February are temperate with short cold breezy spells, bringing the temperature to 30 degrees Centigrade at daytime and to less than 16 degrees Centigrade at night.
The Nile
The waters of the Nile gather from many countries - Tanzania, Kenya, Congo, Uganda and Ethiopia, form the River Nile. The contribution of Sudan and that of Egypt is negligible. Of the total volume, 84% comes from Ethiopia and 16% from the lake plateau of central Africa. The Nile Basin covers an area of 1,100,000 square miles, roughly one tenth of the area of Africa.
The main Nile is formed by the confluence of the White and Blue Niles at Khartoum State, north of the Bridge of Shambat, between the towns of Omdurman and Khartoum North. For the 1,880 miles from Khartoum to the Mediterranean, it receives no perennial tributaries and is believed to be the longest stretch of river in the world.
There are no other regular tributaries. The Atbara River, which joins the main Nile 200 miles north of Khartoum, carries large volumes of water when it is in spate, but is dry for more than half the year. In the 950 miles of its course in Sudan, there are a number of cataracts, some of which with a great potential for the development of hydroelectric power on a large scale. Height above sea level: The average height of the Nile is 350 meters above sea level.
Because of the Aswan Dam, a huge lake has formed south of the dam and into Sudanese land in the Wadi Halfa area where it is called the Nubian Lake.
The White and the Blue Nile
The White Nile: flows for a distance of 2,265 miles, has various names in its upper reaches. Its most remote source is the Luveronza River, which rises in Tanzania about 4,200 miles south of the Mediterranean Sea. The Luveronza joins the Kagera River, where they flow into LakeVictoria. From this great freshwater lake (the second largest in the world), the only outlet is the Victoria Nile, which reaches swampy Lake Kioga through a series of rapids. After another series of falls, of which the Murchison is the last and most spectacular, the Victoria Nile passes through Lake Alberta. Entering Sudan at Nimule, about 3,100 miles from the sea, the river is now known as Bahr El Jebel. For the next hundred miles, there is yet another series of rapids and then the river embarks on a long journey through the Great Plains of Sudan. After winding through papyrus swamps for over 400 miles, Bahr El Jebel reaches Lake No, where Bahr El Ghazal joins it from the west. From this point onwards, the main stream is known as the White Nile; its total length from Lake No to Khartoum is about 600 miles. After about 80 miles from Lake No, it is joined by Sobat River, which runs down from the mountains of Ethiopia. There are no other tributaries of any importance of the White Nile between there and Khartoum. The Blue Nile: originates from Lake Tana, which lies on the Ethiopian plateau about 1,000 miles from Khartoum. Its course in Sudan is nearly 500 miles long and is joined by the rivers Dinder and Rahad between Sennar and Khartoum.
Tributaries of the White Nile, Blue Nile and the Nile
White Nile: Rivers Bahr El Ghazal and Sobat near Malakal Town.
Blue Nile: Rivers Dinder and Rahad near Wad Medani Town.
River Nile: River Atbara near Ed Damer Town.
Nile lakes: Lake Nubia, on the Sudanese- Egyptian border.
Dams: There are several dams on the Blue and White Niles. Among them are the Sennar and Roseires on the Blue Nile, and Jebel Aulia on the White Nile.
Natural Resources
Sudan is rich in natural resources, featured as:
Vast arable lands, suitable for cultivation, estimated at 200 million feddans.
Extensive areas of forests, acacia trees and pastures, occupying almost 250 million feddans.
A large reserve of cattle and sheep estimated at more than 100 million heads, with cattle estimated at 30 million, sheep 37 million, goats 33 million and camels 3 million.
Huge water resources in terms of river waters, rainfall together with vast underground water reservoirs.
The diverse climatic conditions across all parts of the country, which makes it suitable for the cultivation of various crops and fruits the whole year round.
Rich mineral resources, which have not been fully exploited or explored up to date.
In addition to petroleum and natural gas, they include: gold, silver, chrome, asbestos, manganese, gypsum, mica, zinc, iron, lead, uranium, copper, kaolin, cobalt, granite, nickel and tin.
The Republic of the Sudan is an independent, sovereign State. It is a democratic, decentralized, multi-cultural, multi-lingual, multi-racial, multi-ethnic and multi-religious country where such diversities co-exist.
The State is committed to the respect and promotion of human dignity and is founded on justice, equality and the advancement of human rights and fundamental freedoms and assures multi-partism.
The Sudan is an all embracing homeland where religions and cultures are sources of strength, harmony and inspiration.
Freedom of Assembly and Association
The right to peaceful assembly shall be guaranteed; every person shall have the right to freedom of association with others, including the right to form or join political parties, associations and trade or professional unions for the protection of his/her interests.
Formation and registration of political parties, associations and trade unions shall be regulated by law as is necessary in a democratic society.
No association shall function as a political party at national, Southern Sudan or State level unless it has:
(a) its membership open to any Sudanese irrespective of religion, ethnic origin or place of birth,
(b) a programme that does not contradict the provisions of the Constitution,
(c) democratically elected leadership and institutions,
(d) disclosed and transparent sources of funding.
The National Assembly:
The current Sudanese Parliament is the fourth National Assembly established in accordance with Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) signed in Nivasha on 9th of January 2005, whereas Article (117) of the Interim National Constitution of the Republic of the Sudan 2005 stipulates that pending elections, the National Assembly shall be composed of four hundred and fifty members to be appointed according to seventy percent and thirty percent Northern/Southern ratio, as follows:-
a) The National Congress Party shall be represented by fifty two percent (forty nine percent for Northerners and three percent for southerners).
b) Sudan People's Liberation Movement shall be represented by twenty eight percent (twenty one percent for southerners and seven percent for northerners.
c) Other northern political forces shall be represented by six percent.
d) Other southern political forces shall be represented by six percent.
The Assembly convened its first procedural sitting of the first session dated 29th January 2005 and elected H.E. Mr. Ahmed Ibrahim El-Tahir as the Speaker as well as Mr. Ateem Gerang a Deputy Speaker, in a sitting headed by the older member wherein the members took the constitutional oath.
The Assembly resumes its legislative, control and mobilization functions through (19) Standing specialized committees each of which is composed of a number of Assembly members chaired by one of the members elected by the Assembly with the nomination of his Speaker. Ad hoc committees may be composed to achieve some functions requir5ed by the Assembly business, and its period ends upon the completion of its functions.
The Minister of Parliamentary Affairs who is appointed by the President of the Republic as a minister, assumes in addition to his parliamentary duties as a member as well as a leader for Assembly deliberations, the coordination between the Presidency and the Assembly, added to the executive power that the Assembly knowing that H.E. Joseph Okilo is the incumbent Minister of Coordination of Assembly Affairs.
The General Secretariat with the chairmanship of the Secretary General appointed by the Speaker with approval of the Assembly undertakes executive, administrative, financial and service business of the Assembly.
The legal adviser appointed by the Speaker assumes legal consultation of the Assembly legislative drafting and technical legal matters with the cooperation of a number of legal experts.
The National Assembly last 3 years with two convening sessions per year, the period of each is 3 months, while the control and mobilization is in function during recess through the standing committees of the Assembly.
The Federal Council of Ministers (Federal Executive Branch)
The council of ministers is appointed by the president. It accordingly sets the federal ministerial responsibilities and tasks for the federal executive branch. Together with the president, it constitutes the highest federal executive body. The president of the republic also appoints the states' governors and ministers.
Federalism: Sudan adopted the federal system as the basis of rule in accordance to the recommendations of the National Conference for Peace (1989). Federalism has always been contemplated, since the fifties, as a possible solution to the issues of the civil war in the South. The consecutive Constitutional Directives which established this system, determined the states, and laid down the outlines for interrelations between the various federal and state bodies and forming these bodies. Sudan is presently divided into 26 state. The Federal Government Bureau was established by the Fourth Constitutional Directive to take charge of coordination duties between the various organs and bodies.
The Government of National Unity
According to the national Constitution(2005), the Government of National Unity, was setup in September 2005 and a general multiparty election will be held in 2008 – 2009. The Government of National Unity will implement the Comprehensive Peace Agreement, reflecting the need for inclusiveness , the promotion of national unity and the protection of national sovereignty.
A culture of a civilization is based upon its accumulating heritage. The dietary habits of people show an aspect of this civilization's culture. Sudanese cuisine is as diverse as its geography and cultures. Central Sudan, is perhaps the region that is the most diversified and colorful in its cuisine and dietary habits. This is due to its beir~g a melting pot for the different Sudanese cultures and peoples, and to its exposure to external influences, like the effect of the British domination during the Condominium period.
After having established their basic cuisine, they tend to the development of complimentary foods e.g. appetizers, desert and other foods, which allows for the emergence of a distinct cuisine. The external influences on people's dietary habits in Sudan could be mentioned here, for example, red pepper and other spices like garlic, pepper, and others, they were brought to Sudan by the Syrian traders and Arab settlers from the Mediterranean who came to Sudan during the Turkish rule. They also introduced some dishes e.g. meatballs and pastries. Not only that, they also introduced some vegetables and fruits that were not known in Sudan.
It is of importance to note that the main staple of the Sudanese is a special type of bread called Kissra, which is made of durra or corn, Kissra is taken together with stew and this has become the main dish in central and Sudan in general. The main components of which these stews are made are dried meat, dried onions, spices and peanut butter. Other substances could be added like milk and yoghurt, these are used in preparing two well-known stews ; Ni'aimiya and . Dried ocra is used in preparing other stews like - Waika, Bussaara and Sabaroag. Miris, is a stew that is made from sheep's fat, onions and dried okra. Other vegetables like potatoes, eggplants and others are used in preparing their stews meat,onions and spices.
These stews are accompanied with porridge (Asseeda), which is made with wheat flour or corn. Other times Kissra is used. As for the popular appetizers in Sudan, there is (Elmaraara) and (Umfitit) that are made of parts of sheep like the lungs, liver in stomach. To these are added onions, peanut butter and salt, it is eaten raw. Also other types of porridges are popular in Sudan which are made of wheat, Dhukhun and dates. They are taken together with milk, sugar and margarine. Soups are an important component of the Sudanese food, the most popular are Kawari', which is made of cattle's or sheep's hoofs in addition to vegetables and spices. Also there is Elmussalammiya, which is made with liver, flour, dates and spices.
In spite of the fact that in the present, Northern Sudan is known for its simple cuisine, yet it could be of significance that historical evidence has proven that ancient Nubians were the first to discover wheat and from them, the world got to know about it. This explains the fact that wheat flour has still remained the staple food for the people of the north who use it in making their main dish (Gourrassa). It is made of wheat and baked in a circular shape, its thickness and size change according the needs.
In the east, the most popular dish is the (Moukhbaza), which is made of banana paste. This part is greatly influenced by the Ethiopian taste and cuisine.
In the west, each tribal group had adopted different forms of food that are basically very simple. Milk and diary products are a fundamental component to the majority of the people since most of them are cattle breeders. A distinct cereal by which the west is well- known is (Dukhun). It is used in preparing a thick porridge called (Aseeda Dukhun), to that is added a stew called (Sharmout Abiyad) which is cooked with dry meat. Another form of stew is (Kawal), which is made from a mixture of some plants' roots that are left to leaven and dried afterwards.
As for the south, the abundance of rivers, lakes and swamps had made the people these regions dependent on fish for their food. A popular dish is a stew named (Kajaik), which is cooked of dried fish. It is added to the porridge, which is common throughout Sudan, (Aseeda) made of sorghum. Sometimes natural margarine is added to the mixture. In Equatoria, (Aseeda) is made of (Bafra) which is a plant of the same family of potatoes. To the (Aseeda) is added a green vegetable called (Mouloukhiya) with peanut butter. Fassikh is one of the most popular dishes in Central Sudan. It is made from a certain kind of fish which is leavened for sometime and after that cooked with onions, spices and tomato sauce. Fassikh is known in Egypt but they do not cook it there, instead they eat it raw. It is most probably of Nubian origin same as Eitarkeen, which could not be found any where except northern Sudan.
As for soft drinkings, the Sudanese have several distinct refreshments that are made of some fruits that grow in Sudan like Tabaldi, Aradaib, Karkadai and Guddaim. In Ramadan (The Muslims' fasting month), one of their favourite drinks is the Hilumur which is made from corn flour and spices. Also there are Aabrai Abiyad and Nashaa, which are made of corn flour also.
The oldest and most consistent of Sudanese modern and contemporary art is the art of the tribes. The Sudanese tribal life has always been the least responsive to change. Art of the tribes of the Sudan shows great reservation and conservatism. An art of such continuity clearly exposes the spirit of such tribal cultures. In fact the richness of the Sudanese art is in its diversity. This entire heritage, past and present, constitutes the base on which the modern Sudanese artistic practices are deeply grafted. This is why, Sudanese contemporary art, stands out among the different African schools of art as unique. This entire heritage, past and present, constitutes the base on which the modern days of Islam in Sudan. It is traditional Qoranic School, which continued to exist from as early as thia 9th century AD until the present day. It teaches art as a practice, but not as an objective. Yet its artistic impact on the Sudanese child seems to be important. When the Turks invaded Sudan in 1824, Mohamed Ali Pasha, who was very keen on the modernization of the Nile Valley, introduced the Modern Elementary Education, yet he based the experience on the traditional (khalwa) school. In 1936, a department of art education was established in Bakht-el- Rida Institute of Education.
The department was headed by Jean Pier Greenlow, a British artist and art teacher, he went into history as the founder of the modern art movement in Sudan. Since the pioneering efforts of Greenlow in 1936, Sudanese art has in fact developed into a relatively strong cultural medium of expression. The change came when some of the pioneer graduates of Gordon Memorial College went overseas for further studies. But they soon came to discover that the works of art could only exist between the old and new, between convention and revolution within a certain society. This is why some pioneer artists where culturally frustrated in Europe. They naturally failed to be part of the European mainstream art. They started to drift away from it, and began to try things on their own. So the Sudanese artists returned to Khartoum to face their own culture and to practice art as a socio - cultural activity. The Sudanese contemporary society is complex, plural and draws from many different traditions and visual styles. Hence what was called latter (Khartoum School) in the 60s, was in fact a forum for the struggle to capture the spirit and perspective of, not only Africa but the Islamic World also. Because both worlds make the cultural reality of Sudan, a reality of unity and diversity.
Contemporary Sudanese art world did not experience a war of styles, or strong schools other than (Khartoum School). Nevertheless, there is a relatively strong art movement, which is highly experimental. In its own way, this movement is modernist and seeking to globalize in spite of the rather restrictive conditions under which hundreds of Sudanese artists are working. If serious art can be defined as the art that does not have an obvious commercial orientation. Then we can say there is serious art today in Sudan.